Food Circles: Permaculture as a Regenerative Landscape Practice in Informal Settlements of Semi-Arid Windhoek, Namibia.

4 November 2024

Introduction

Namibia, the driest country in Sub-Saharan Africa (UNCCD, 2024) is renowned for its natural landscapes but also characterised by its arid climate, high temperatures and fragile ecosystems. Climate change threatens to exacerbate these conditions, with projected increases in temperature, more severe droughts, species loss, and additional pressure on already scarce water resources. Urban areas such as Windhoek could lead to intensified heat, heightened dust levels, and worsening water shortages.

Urbanisation in developing countries such as Namibia is projected to expand threefold from 2000 to 2030, increasing from 200,000 square kilometres to 600,000 square kilometres (Pieterse, 2011: 309). This means that 400,000 square kilometres of natural habitat will be converted into urban areas within 30 years.

This rapid expansion, characterised by informal settlements or self-built “cities,” degrades habitats, leads to biodiversity loss, and threatens essential ecosystem services. It also impacts human lives by alienating people from cultural and place-based relationships.

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With a population of 3.1 million, approximately 40% of Namibians live in informal settlements (UNSDG, 2024) (Figure 1). These settlements are shaped by historical socio-political dynamics, including rapid urbanisation and colonial legacies, making them contested socio-economic and environmental spaces (Weber and Mendelsohn, 2017)The harsh climate further intensifies insecure land tenure, limited access to services like water, and environmental degradation, challenging sustainable development.

In this context, Permaculture — a design system for creating sustainable human settlements modelled on natural processes (Holmgren, 2002; Mollison & Slay, 1997) — emerges as a promising approach to address soil degradation, climate change, and biodiversity loss. Its adaptation to Windhoek’s dryland conditions, through water conservation and soil rehabilitation, offers immense potential.

In areas where virgin land is stripped bare for housing, the food circles initiative leads a quiet revolution. Spearheaded by the Kambashu Institute and local communities, this initiative applies Permaculture principles to transform barren, degraded land into productive gardens. These food circles address food insecurity and combat environmental degradation, demonstrating the viability of regenerative practices in Windhoek’s arid landscape.

The broader implication of these efforts is that lessons learned in Windhoek’s harsh conditions could serve as models for other dryland regions in Sub-Saharan Africa. This highlights the need for further research and action to upscale these initiatives and integrate them into urban planning policies, ensuring regenerative practices inform sustainable urban development. The inherent hands-on and flexible nature of informal ‘self-built’ urban contexts may offer opportunities for transformation towards regenerative urban landscapes through community- and place-based learning through practices rooted in and directed towards the regeneration of the landscape.

Background to context

During apartheid and colonial periods, informal settlements were not tolerated (Weber & Mendelsohn, 2017; Crush, Nickanor & Kazembe, 2018; Olwage, 2022). However, following Namibia’s independence in 1990, these settlements began to emerge as temporary ‘reception areas’ for poor migrants, particularly on the outskirts of Windhoek (Weber & Mendelsohn, 2017) (Figure 2). Initially intended as short-term solutions, these areas have become permanent, leading to unregulated urban growth. These peri-urban areas are characterised by unemployment, poverty, widespread food insecurity and limited access to essential services such as communal taps and shared toilets (Weber & Mendelsohn, 2017; Crush et al., 2018).

Often located on rocky, hilly terrains, river valleys or sandy plains, building in these areas involves the clearing of savannah grasses, thus exposing the soil to erosion, compaction, and reduced rainwater retention (Figure 3). This leads to diminished groundwater recharge, degraded soil biodiversity and increased environmental degradation. Windhoek’s semi-arid climate, with its sparse rainfall and a lack of arable land, along with the impacts of climate change, such as increasing heat and dust, further exacerbates these challenges. This highlights the necessity for innovative land management approaches. Permaculture practices can offer a pathway toward developing regenerative landscapes, which we will explore in the context of Windhoek’s informal settlements.

Permaculture principles and practices

Permaculture is a holistic system that creates sustainable human environments by mimicking natural ecosystems (Holmgren 2002; Mollison & Slay 1997; Reiff et al., 2024). First coined in 1976 in an article written by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, “Permaculture ”quickly transitioned from organic farming to human settlements and a cultural movement focused on community upliftment, community-driven food production and land restoration (Grayson and Payne, 2007). Central to permaculture is the observation of natural systems and the relationships between plants, animals, and infrastructure, which together form life-supporting, ecologically sound, and economically viable systems (Mollison & Slay, 1997).

Fundamental principles of permaculture include considering the long-term consequences of actions, cultivating the smallest possible land area with intensive, energy-efficient systems, the strategic placement of elements to support one another and that each component of the system serves several purposes to ensure optimal efficiency (Mollison & Slay, 1997: 3-5). The approach favours the use of native species and strives to maintain social and ecological balances. The goal is to create small, sustainable systems that improve soil quality, water management, and biodiversity through techniques like polycultures and natural plant succession in intricate, productive communities (Mollison and Slay, 1997).

The goal is to create small, sustainable systems that improve soil quality, water management, and biodiversity through techniques like polycultures and natural plant succession in intricate, productive communities (Mollison and Slay, 1997).The goal is to create small, sustainable systems that improve soil quality, water management, and biodiversity through techniques like polycultures and natural plant succession in intricate, productive communities (Mollison and Slay, 1997).

At its core, permaculture is guided by an ethic of ‘Earth Care’, ‘People care’ and ‘Fair share’ (Figure 4) (Holmgren, 2002) prioritising long-term sustainability, community self-reliance and the development of diverse, resilient ecosystems. However, the comprehensiveness of permaculture can pose challenges for large-scale implementation (Holmgren, 2002: iv). As a result,  ‘small and slow solutions’ (Holmgren, 2002: 183) through manageable projects, experimentation and learning are allowed while minimizing risks such as the impact of inappropriate designs or discouragement that may come from overwhelm or failure in large-scale projects.

Towards permaculture as a regenerative approach in informal settlements

Regenerative design is "rooted in an understanding of the unique life system of a place and seeks to heal the landscape and its people by working following ecological processes specific to that place." (Reed, 2007: 676). Spatial design that reflects local landscapes and that fosters social exchange, meaning, and association helps establish a sense of belonging to the land and in the community (Gibbons, Cloutier, Coseo & Barakat, 2018: 1) Regenerative processes are interactive, involving continuous learning, reflection and dialogue to harmonise social systems with ecological ones (Reed, 2007: 678). These landscapes also function as “learning organisations,” capable of evolving as inhabitants develop deeper connections with their environment (Reed, 2007: 676).

In the informal settlements of Windhoek, 'food circles' based on permaculture practices are small-scale, community-led initiatives that provide an entry point for reconnecting people with the environment. This initiative seeks to foster an understanding of ecological systems while promoting local food security, social exchange, and a sense of belonging, paving the way towards developing a regenerative landscape.

Local examples of permaculture as a regenerative learning practice

The Kambashu Institute², a Permaculture Learning Centre established by and for shack dwellers in Windhoek, has been running a training program since September 2021. The program focuses on engaging participants from informal settlements and encouraging community involvement in developing innovative ideas and solutions to improve their environment and livelihoods.

Trainers from the Kambashu Institute teach permaculture practices and closely monitor the progress of all food circles, offering ongoing support and consultancy as needed. This includes providing seeds, seedlings, compost, and other essential resources. The institute welcomes scholars, students, and anyone interested in learning about permaculture practices. Participants who successfully maintain their food circles for over a year are inducted into the Star Club, a group of experienced members who become permaculture trainers. Star Club members receive additional benefits and share their knowledge with other community members, students, and learners, fostering a self-sustaining cycle of education and empowerment (Figures 5a,b and c).

The participatory nature of the Kambashu Institute program emphasises the importance of local knowledge and community involvement.

Driven by the belief that everyone should have the opportunity to improve their livelihoods, the institute bridges provides opportunities for learning for those seeking to improve their circumstances using permaculture as the vehicle to empower individuals and communities to create lasting change in their environments. The program is culturally sensitive, respecting and integrating local traditions such as grey water usage and the incorporation of indigenous plant species like Oshiwambo spinach (Cleome gynandra) and Mahangu / Millet (Pennisetum glaucum) into the food circle designs. This approach ensures that permaculture practices are not only sustainable but also culturally relevant, strengthening participants' connection to their agricultural heritage.

Since establishing the Kambashu Institute in 2021, food circles have grown from ninety to over two hundred and thirty-one successfully cultivated microclimatic gardens across Windhoek’s informal settlements (Figure 6).  Using permaculture principles, food circles help transform livelihoods and the environment and, in this way, move towards regenerating the landscape.

Description of food circles

A food circle consists of a two-meter diameter planting area centred around a compost pit that enriches the soil with biomass (Figure 7). The surrounding area is shaped into a berm where residents can use grey water to plant vegetables and fruit trees. Food circles are strategically positioned to maximise sunlight, with trees planted on the west side to provide shade during the hottest part of the day. The compact size ensures easy maintenance and growth. Adapting this design includes a linear bioswale with a trench that captures runoff. The trench, filled with organic matter, enhances water retention and nutrient cycling while promoting soil rehabilitation.

The benefits of food circles are manifold: they create habitats, attract diverse species, improve soil quality, and enhance biodiversity.

Essential practices for creating productive landscapes include developing soil organic matter and using water wisely. These methods supply nutrients, improve food quality, and reduce watering needs by enhancing the soil's water-holding capacity and reducing losses through evaporation through mulching, thus significantly decreasing water usage. Additionally, they prevent soil erosion caused by heavy rain or wind and capture and store carbon. By cycling biomass and nutrients through mulching and composting, food circles foster fertile soils and enhance water storage. These practices benefit the environment and instil social values and a sense of responsibility among community members, aligning with broader regenerative design principles. Each permaculture system should be context-specific, requiring adaptation through trial and error to meet the unique environmental and social needs of its setting, including factors such as water table height, soil type and structure, and topography.

In this harsh, arid environment, barren and degraded land is being rehabilitated one circle at a time. The food circles of participants (Figure 8) illustrated how the exposed and degraded soil has been transformed into thriving gardens. Successful food circles provide a reliable food source for families and inspire neighbours to start their food circles. Participants have reported significant improvements in the sense of ownership and pride, both of which contribute to establishing place-based relationships and community well-being (Figure 9)

What can be improved?

The value of local knowledge and participatory involvement in permaculture in urban areas cannot be overstated. Permaculture food circles demonstrate how arid landscapes can become productive and serve as microclimatic green spaces in dryland contexts. With minimal investment and resources, these practices can create a chain reaction towards achieving food security and landscape regeneration in Windhoek’s urban areas.

Permaculture practices in informal settlements provide valuable lessons in regenerative landscape systems, which can be upscaled to develop landscape regulations for both informal and formal urban areas.

Despite challenges, permaculture offers opportunities as a regenerative approach that can also inform urban planning policies. For example, reinstating landscape policies that enforce water-saving techniques such as rainwater harvesting and greywater recycling and developing landscape regulations that promote the use of native plant species, the re-establishment of pollinator habitats, and the improvement of soil micro-organisms. Urban planning policies could also include incentivised community workshops and training as trade-offs, designed as part of a regenerative learning organisation. This would help build local regenerative capacity. These workshops would ensure that knowledge of regenerative systems is widely shared, empowering residents to actively transform the urban environment while fostering a sense of community ownership. Together, these efforts would enhance the resilience of the entire urban ecosystem.

To ensure the effectiveness and sustainability of these initiatives, it is crucial to develop a framework for monitoring and evaluating the impact of regenerative efforts. This framework could include metrics for assessing soil health, biodiversity, food security, and community well-being. Permaculture training and workshops will help to foster ongoing research and innovation in regenerative practices within urban areas. Regenerative approaches, as a viable and long-term solution to Windhoek’s environmental challenges, will ultimately improve efficiency and sustainability.

Way Forward

The article discusses how permaculture practices, particularly food circles, address environmental degradation in Windhoek’s informal settlements. In Namibia, where arid conditions are worsening due to climate change, the Kambashu Institute’s permaculture approach offers sustainable solutions. At the grassroots level, food circles transform barren land into productive gardens, improving soil health and livelihoods through community-driven efforts. These interventions enhance local ecosystems and foster community resilience, which, when scaled up, could serve as regenerative design models for dryland regions across Sub-Saharan Africa.

Looking ahead, permaculture’s role in informal settlements appears promising. As these practices are integrated into community development, designers and policymakers can expand and adapt them within education, urban planning, and policy frameworks. Permaculture supports sustainable dryland urban growth by promoting water conservation, soil restoration, biodiversity, and food security. With innovation and upscaling, these efforts could mitigate climate change impacts and create more resilient urban ecosystems.

To further these initiatives, stakeholders should focus on expanding permaculture education, integrating it into urban planning, adopting water-saving technologies, promoting community workshops, and supporting research.

These actions will help scale permaculture efforts, contributing to regenerative and resilient urban landscapes in Namibia and beyond.

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Notes:

1. The design aspect of regenerative design focuses on creating systems, structures, and processes that contribute positively to ecological, social, and economic health. The design is characterised by a commitment to creating environments that are not only functional and aesthetically pleasing but also restorative and beneficial to the broader ecological and social systems.

2.The Kambashu Institute is a Permaculture Learning Centre by and for Shack Dwellers in Windhoek. The signature project is a so called ‘food circle’ which is a planting bed around a compost pit. The vision of the centre is to educate people in the informal settlements about gardening and food security.